DAMS IN THE CORDILLERA

In the 1980s, a widespread people’s resistance forced the Marcos government and the World Bank to give up the construction of large dams on all the major rivers of the Cordillera. But when an energy crisis hit the country in the early 1990s, the Ramos government grabbed the opportunity; this opened to revive almost all the projects outlined in Marcos’s plans. By then, the World Bank had adopted the policy that it would no longer fund any large dam project that might impact on, and thus probably draw protest from any Cordillera community. But happy to find an investment outlet for Japanese surplus capital, Japan’s Ministry of Finance eagerly facilitated Ramos’ efforts to get funding for the projects. First to be implemented, even in the face of popular protest, was the San Roque Multipurpose Project.

The San Roque project involves the construction of the biggest earthcore-rockfill dam in Asia, on what is probably the most silt-logged river in the Philippines. Both ecologically and economically, it is a project that makes little sense.

But what can a large dam project do? Especially today, on the Cordillera, whose river systems and watersheds are now in such a poor state, they can hardly support mega-hydropower dams for even just the minimum of 25 years in which these dams are normally expected to remain functional?

This paper discusses the state of the Cordillera’s river system and watersheds, and the hydro-power generation projects that the present dispensation expects them to support. It also looks at the implications posed by the current restructuring of the power industry vis-à-vis such projects. It closes with a discussion of the opposition to large dam projects that has mounted both locally and internationally.

The River Systems of the Cordillera and their Watersheds

The Cordillera is dubbed as the watershed cradle of Northern Luzon. Its forests sustain six of Northern Luzon’s major river systems. Perhaps for this reason, government classifies 85% of the Cordillera as forestland, 30% of which is officially designated as forest reserve.

Headwaters

The Mount Data forest reserve, located along the boundary of Benguet and the Mountain Province, hosts the headwaters of five major rivers that traverse the Cordillera provinces and drain into the lowlands.

The most extensive of these rivers is the Chico. Its headwaters are located at the northern slopes of Mount Data. Chico flows eastward across Mount Data before taking a northeasterly turn towards Bontoc in the Mountain Province. It continues in its northeasterly course to and through the province of Kalinga, where it is fed by the Tanudad, Pasil, and Saltan rivers. From Kalinga, it flows into Cagayan province, where it drains into the Rio Grande de Cagayan.

Also flowing eastward from Mount Date is the Ahin River. It flows through the province of Ifugao, where it is joined by the Ibulao River before it empties into the Magat River along Ifugao’s border with Isabela.

The Siffu River, another tributary of Magat, originates from eastern Mountain Province, cuts through Ifugao, then drains into Magat in Isabela.

The Abra River originates from the southern section of Mount Data. It descends westward to Cervantes, Ilocos Sur and flows to the province of Abra. At a point near the municipality of Dolores, it is joined by the Tineg River, which originates from the uplands of Abra.

Also flowing in a southwesterly direction from Mount Data is the Amburayan River. It traverse the western section of Benguet before it drains into La Union. Here, it is fed by the Naguillian and Aringay rivers, which originated from Benguet, and then empties into the South China Sea.

A third river originated from the southern slopes of Mount Data. This is Agno, which flows southward through eastern Benguet then drains into Pangasinan. Here, it takes a westerly course, turns north, then drains into Lingayen Gulf.

Agno River has numerous tributaries, the largest of which is the Bued River. The headwaters of the Bued are found within the city of Baguio.

Agno has been dammed at two points – at Ambuclao in Bokod and at Binga in Itogon, both in Benguet. The third dam at San Roque, along Bunguet’s boundary with the municipalities of San Manuel and San Nicolas, Pangasinan, was completed in 2002.

Farthest north in the Cordillera region are the twin rivers, Abulug and Apayao, both originating from the province of Apayao. They meet near the municipality of Kabugao and from there take a northeasterly course towards the sea.

River Basins

The river basins of the Cordillera have enormous water-bearing capacity. They have a total drainage area of 5,447,500 hectares and groundwater storage of about 150 million cubic meters. According to government development planners, this is more than sufficient for supplying the irrigation and energy requirements of the entire Northern Luzon.

Major Cordillera River Basins and their Drainage Areas	
River Basin	Drainage Area	
Abulog-Apayao	444,500 ha.	
Chico	1,049,400 ha.	
Magat	1,366,00 ha.	
Abra	512,500 ha.	
Amburayan – Naguillian – Aringay 	687,400 ha.	
Agno – Bued	1,387,700 ha.	
Total	5,447,500 ha.	
Denuded Forests, Critical Watersheds

Most of the forests that support these river systems have been declared as reservations. The classification of forests as watershed reservations has largely been associated with hydropower and irrigation dam projects.

Long before any dam project was undertaken Cordillera, though, the Central Cordillera Forest Reservation was already created. The American colonial government in the Philippines decreed its creation in 1929, settings aside 74,631 hectares of land for the purpose.

Mount Data National Park is part of this reservation. It comprises 7.38%, covering 5,512 hectares.

To ensure the variability of existing and prospective dams, the Marcos government decreed the creation of several watershed reservations.

Dam – associated Watershed Reservations	
Reservation	Land Area	
Ambuklao Watershed Reserve	10,000 ha.	
Upper Agno (Ambuclao – Binga) Watershed Reserve	
73,350 ha.	
Chico River Basin Forest Reserve	351,762 ha.	
Abulog River Basin Forest Reserve	195,659 ha.	
Lower Agno (San Roque)
Watershed Reserve	
39,304 ha.	
Total	670,075 ha.	

All of the forest reservations in the Cordillera region are now in a critical state. Mount Data National Park is in an especially critical condition. Seventy – one percent of its area, or 3,896 hectares, has been logged over and converted to agricultural, residential, and commercial use. It is occupied by 2,277 households.

Some of these are the households of former workers of Benguet Corporation, which used to operate a logging concession on Mount Data. Benguet Corporation is one of several mining companies that have had large sections of pine forest in the Agno, Chico, Amburayan, and Abra river basins logged for mine timber. At one time, Benguet Corporation and the Lepanto Consolidated Mining Company held logging concessions that covered a total of 45,000 hectares.

In the late 1970s, there occurred a shift from the logging of pine timber for the mines to the logging of hardwood for export to Japan. Some 200,000 hectares of old-growth dipterocarp rainforest in the provinces of Apayao, Kalinga, and Mountain Province the target area for big logging concessionaires. Now, only less than half of these forest have remained relatively untouched. Yet, government has continued to issue licenses to hardwood loggers.

The absence of restraints on the logging industry allowed the forest cover of the Cordillera to dwindle to less than 47%. Through the years, the reforestation program of the government has proven ineffective. Until today, there have been no substantial gains in the rehabilitation of watersheds. Verdant growth can no longer be restored because the ecosystems of the areas that were once occupied by forest have been altered beyond redemption.

Due to massive deforestation, the occurrence of flashfloods in areas downstream of major rivers has become a perennial problem. Flash-flooding is especially frequent in Pangasinan towns located along the Agno. Erosion from the balding mountainsides along the entire length of the Agno river basin has so severely silted up the reservoirs two dams at Ambuclao and Binga that these can no longer hold very much water. Their floodgates thus have to be opened whenever there is heavy or continuous rainfall.

Hydropower Generation Projects

Development planners have designated the Cordillera region as a major energy producer. If all its hydropower sources were to be tapped, they would be able to supply 4,306 megawatts to the National Power Corporation’s (NPCs) Luzon Grid, comprising 65% of the energy required from this grid.

Classification of Dams and Hydros

The NPC aims to have hydropower facilities of various sizes installed on Cordillera rivers. These may be classified two ways.

Large and small dams. ICOLD, the International Commission on Large Dams, classifies dams according to physical size. A large dam is any dam which rises to a height of 15 meters or more from its foundation, or which is between five and 15 meters high but has a reservoir volume of more than three million cubic meters. The definitions makes no distinction between dams built for hydropower generation and those built for other purposes, such as flood-control irrigation.

Mega, big, small, mini, and micro-hydros. The power industry classifies dams and other water diversion facilities built for the purpose of hydropower generation according to the mount of current they can supply:

•	Micro-hydros generate only up to one megawatt of electricity.
•	Mini-hydros generate more than one to less than six megawatts.
•	Small hydros generate six to 25 megawatts.
•	Big hydros generate 26 to 50 megawatts
•	Mega-hydros generate more than 50 megawatts.

The NPCs Luzon Grid derive most of its power from large dams classified as mega-hydros. Not all these dams, however, have remained functional.

Existing Facilities for Hydropower Generation

Three of the aforementioned large dams tap Cordillera rivers for hydropower. These are the Ambuclao, Binga, and Magat power plants. But only the Magat plant, which generates 360 megawatts, is in continuous operation. Because of river and reservoir siltation, the plant in Ambuclao, which used to generate 75 megawatts, no longer runs. The sole function of the Ambuclao dam at present is to augment the water supply for the Binga plant. But even the Binga plant, which used to generate 100 megawatts, can only be run intermittently. 

The Binga reservoir is also badly silted up. It contains about 3.5 million cubic meters of silt. Half of million cubic meters have to be dredged from it annually so that it can be used to generate some electricity. A longer-term alternative to annual dredging would be the construction of a sluice tunnel. This would cost 250 to 500 million pesos – money the NPC does not have.

Yet the NPC has thrown away this amount precisely to contract the services of the China Chang Jiang Energy Corporation for the rehabilitation of the Binga dam over 15-year period. The company has been working on the rehabilitation of Binga for the past eight years but has yet to achieve anything.

Aside from the three large dams at Ambuclao, Binga, and Magat, there exists 12-run-of-river mini-hydros in the Cordillera. All are located in Benguet, the municipalities of Bakun, La Trinidad, Sablan, and Tuba. They are privately operated but supply the public utility firm Benguet Electric Cooperative (BENECO), either directly or through the NPC.

Under Construction

One major hydroelectricity generation project has recently been completed, and two others are in the advanced state of development. The first is the Casecnan project; the others are the Bakun and San Roque projects, scheduled fro completion between the current year and the year 2005.

The Casecnan project involves the channeling of water from two large dams in Nueva Vizcaya through a transbasin diversion tunnel that connect them to the existing Pantabangan hydroelectric plant in Nueva Ecija. The plant used to derive its hydropower from the Pantabangan dam. But the siltation of its reservoir has rendered this dam inoerable.

From the water collected by the twin Casecnan dams, the Pantabangan plant will be able to generate 140 megawatts of electricity. The water should also help irrigate 50,000 hectares of land. But the facilities for distributing the water have not yet been installed.

Nearing completion is another transbasin tunnel that will divert water from the Bakun  river in Benguet to a new hydroelectric plant in Alilem, Ilocos Sur. The completion of this tunnel will comprise the final stage of the Bakun River Scheme, in which a set of small and mini-hydros generate an aggregate of about 70 megawatts of electricity.

Still beset by construction problems is the San Roque project. The large dam being build at San Roque is expected to generate at least 345 megawatts of electricity and supply irrigation to 70,800 hectares of land. It is said to be nearing completion, but the truth is that only the San Roque spillway, resting on a mountain left of the dam, has been built. The dam itself has not yet risen to half its planned height; it is supposed to rise to a height of 200 meters and span a breadth of 1.13 kilometers. The main obstacle to progress in its construction is a fissure beneath the ground on which the dam base is being laid. The fissure is so deep that three years’ efforts to fill it have remained unsuccessful.

A fourth project has been underway for several years now but features power generation only a secondary objective. This is the Palsuguan project, which involves the construction of a network of mine small dams, two to 13 meters high, on several rives in Ilocos Norte and one large dam, 143 meter high, on the Tineg river in Abra. The project is expected to result in the irrigation of 25,000 hectares of land and the generation of about 43 megawatts of electricity.

Dams in the Pipeline
 
Various other large dam projects made it to the drawing board in Marcos’s time but were never implemented because of the opposition they drew from the communities they would affect. Several of them are now being considered for implementation. Among these are the Agbulu, Binongan, and Matuno dams in Apayao, Abra and Ifugao respectively.

The opposition to the construction of large dams and mega-hydropower generating purposes has, however, spurred development planners into considering more seriously proposals for small, mini and micro-hydro projects that would mostly tap the natural run of rivers. Feasibility studies have been undertaken for 43 such projects, only tow of which would involve dam construction and reservoir installation. Forty of the projects have been found feasible with independent power producers or IPPs. The bigger of these projects are listed in the table next page.

The NPC studies have been timed perfectly to coincide with the passage of the Power Reform Act, which transfers responsibility for the development and operation of power generating facilities to IPPs.

Ownership and Control 

Existing dams in Binga, Ambuclao and Magat are owned and controlled by the NPC. Most of the existing small hydros in Benguet are owned and operated by an IPP, the Aboitiz Group of Companies.

All of the bigger hydro projects being implemented or due for implementation are BOT projects covered by Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) between the Independent Power Producers (IPP) and the NPC.

Hydro Projects 10 MW and Bigger Considered for Implementation in the Cordillera as of the year 200	
Project	Site	Type	Hydraulic Height	Capacity	
Agbulu	Apayao	Reservoir – type	234.0 m	360 MW	
Amburayan A	Benguet	Run-of-river	10.0 m	34 MW	
Amburayan C	Benguet	Run-of-river	10.0 m	30 MW	
Binongan	Abra	Reservoir – type	112.0 m	175 MW	
Lamut	Ifugao	Run-of-river	8.0 m	12 MW	
Matuno*	Ifugao 	Reservoir – type	122.0-160.0 m	52-250 MW*	
Nalatang A	Benguet	Gated concrete weir	14.5 m	30 MW	
Nalatang B	Benguet	Gated concrete weir	17.0 m	45 MW	
Pasil B	Kalinga	
Run-of-river	
10.0 m	20 MW	
Pasil C	
Kalinga	
Run-of-river	
10.0 m	22 MW	
Pasil D	
Kalinga	
Run-of-river	10.0 m	17 MW	
Saltan A	
Kalinga	
Run-of-river	8.0 m	10 MW	
Saltan B	
Kalinga	
Run-of-river	10.0 m	24 MW	
Tanudan D	
Kalinga	
Reservoir – type 	55.0 m	27 MW	
Tinglayan B	Kalinga	Run-of-river	10.0 m	21 MW	
Aggregate Hydropower Generation Capacity            879-1,077 MW	
* The NPC and the National Irrigation Authority are considering several options for Matuno.
Source: Department of Energy
The small as well as the mini-hydros in the Bakun River Scheme are owned and controlled by the Luzon Hydro Corporation, a joint venture of the Pacific Hydro Latitude and Aboitiz Equity Ventures.
The San Roque dam project is owned and controlled by the San Roque Power Corporation, a consortium of the multinational giant Sithe Energies, Marubeni, and Kansai Electric.

Local and foreign investors have the option to take up any of the small and mini hydro projects proposed and facilitated by the Department of Energy (DOE). The DOE is also open to having local governments undertake these projects in partnership with non-governmental organizations, local electricity cooperatives, or IPPs.
The Restructuring of the Power Industry
In the late 1980s, during the administration of President Corazon Aquino, the government started to liberalize its control on the power industry.
Previous to this, since 1936, the government-owned-and-controlled National Power Corporation had been the only company involved in the generation and transmission of energy.
Aquino’s Executive Order 215 paved the way for the influx of independent power producers to the power industry. The NPC entered into build, operate, transfer contracts and power purchase agreements with these IPPs.
In Some cases the BOT contract and PPA were one and the same: it provided that the IPP would build a power facility, operate it for 25 to 50 years, then transfer ownership of it to the NPC; during the period that the IPP owned and operated the facility, the NPC would purchase power from this IPP on terms fixed in the agreement or contract.
In the 1990s, President Fidel Ramos further encouraged the participation of the private sector in the power industry. With the passage of Republic Act 7648, the Electric Power Crisis Act of 1993, the President was empowered to enter into negotiated contracts for the construction, repair, rehabilitation, improvement, or maintenance or power facilities.
The first onerous contract that was negotiated under this law was the 15-year Binga Rehabilitate-Operate-Leaseback agreement with the China Chang Jiang Energy Corporation. The Ramos administration also entered into another onerous contract with the San Roque Power Corporation for the San Roque Multipurpose Project.
The San Roque project was formally launched in 1997. It was considered a flagship project by both the Ramos and the Estrada Administration.
President Estrada continued with the power program begun by his predecessor, including measures to have a bill passed by Congress for the privatization of the NPC and of the power industry as a whole. The NPC continued with its study of the hydropower potentials of Cordillera rivers towards the formulation of a comprehensive plan that could be implemented once the privatization bill was passed. When Gloria Macapagal – Arroyo took over the presidency, this bill became her top priority. In less than six months, the new president was able to press for the passage of the bill.
And with the passage of this bill, the floodgates for more BOT dam projects in the Cordillera are now fully opened. The President has stated that she will make sure the San Roque dam will be the last large dam built on any river of the Cordillera. But it remains to be seen whether this will indeed be the case.